Wow, an amazing book! A gripping and tragic story. All the information comes from white male records, and most of the information comes from trial testimony, from enslaved men under duress, so who knows how much is accurate...but here's a rough outline:
- Late spring in the year 1800, Sam Byrd Jr begins building support for a freedom fight; mostly in the Brook neighborhood, north of Richmond on the stage coach road.
- There is a rumor of 1 or 2 frenchmen who encourage a rebellion (some fighting b/w US and France).
- Also a rumor of a man (white man?) who fought in siege at Yorktown who is willing to help lead the fighting (may have been a recruiting tool).
- Other early leaders of the plan: George (smith), Gilbert (young), Ben Woolfolk, and Jack Bowler.
- Jack recruits Gabriel (prosser)
- Recruitment north as far as Caroline Co and south into Richmond
- Basic planning goals:
- recruit hundreds of commitments (Gabriel hopes for 1000); and then hope that others join along the way
- gather weapons, powder, money, and alcohol (for recruitment purposes)
- coordinate a night for surprise attack on Richmond city center
- More specific questions:
- who's in charge? Gabriel emerges as leader; Jack Bowler also puts himself forward but Gabriel is voted leader at the end
- promise of military rank to help motivate recruiters
- where will attack be focused? first on owners in Brook area, then along the way to Richmond, gathering extra weapons as they go, ultimately hope to overrun capitol, capture weapons, and establish a stronghold in Richmond; kill or capture Governor; negotiate with u.s. forces that they anticipate will respond quickly.
- kill all the whites? just the white men? varying testimony on who will be attacked; some say not the methodists, quakers, or french, or others who agree to free their slaves, etc.
- are the women involved? not mentioned in testimony, but Gabriel's wife Nanny supportive
- Sat Aug 9, rumor in Petersburg of a plot.
- Sunday 10 Aug, Gabriel and a few others able to slip into capitol and view weapons, lent key by Robert Cowley, free black man and Keeper of the Capitol.
- Date set for rebellion, Sat Aug 30; some debate about sat vs sun.
- Early on Aug 30, two enslaved men, Pharoah and Tom, report to Mosby Sheppard of the plan. Mosby shares this with various folks; Gov Monroe alerted; some patrols organize b/w Richmond and Brook
- Terrible storm; said to be one of the worst in recent memory.
- No rebellion; some may have gathered and agreed to postpone because of weather.
- Enslaved woman tells William Mosby (who had been part of the patrol) late that night about the plan and that the men postponed attempt till Sunday night.
- Authorities begin arresting and detaining men, especially from Brook area
- Henrico trials begin quickly; trials of "oyer and terminer" - no jury, five justices, conviction must be unanimous, acquittal takes one justice, not guilty must be unanimous, can recommend pardon.
- Mostly convictions in the first few days of trials; looks more like revenge than justice; trying to send message to community; many men quickly hanged in Richmond near the Negro burial ground.
- Gov Monroe authorized to organize militia; displays of power - troops parading on Capitol grounds and on Church Hill; promises reward for capture of Gabriel, who escaped on boat to Norfolk.
- As related trials continue in Henrico, Richmond, Caroline Co, Louisa, and Dinwiddie, more and more executions begin to be postponed, Gov. and Council begin to issue pardons.
- Some citizens petition for ending or moving the hangings. Some men hanged in Brook neighborhood and other areas.
- Gov Monroe and Council trying to "terrify" the slaves with hangings, but not killing too many slaves; the state has to compensate owners for slaves who are executed.
- Late september enslaved sailor tips off authorities about Gabriel, but he doesn't end up receiving reward; ship captain criticized but not punished for believing Gabriel's story; Bowler later basically turns himself in early Oct.
- Free blacks quickly trying to make sure they are registered in Richmond.
- 72 men tried; one man killed himself before trial
- 26 men convicted then executed by hanging (mostly in early days of trials)
- 25 men acquitted
- 13 men convicted then pardoned
- 8 men "transported" (sold outside of the country; a new law passed in 1801)
- Pharoah and Tom bought and freed by the state; a group of men in Richmond buy bonds to establish an annuity for them.
- Ben (from Thomas Prosser's farm) bought and freed by group of men from Richmond; he gave a lot of info during trials.
- 24 of the men hanged were from Brook neighborhood - that's about 10% or more of all the men in that area.
- Gov Monroe asks soon to be Pres Jefferson to look for ways to relocate free blacks and deport convicted blacks.
- Some people blame rebellion on French ideas of "Liberty and Equality," others cast some blame on Methodists and Baptists and effects of early revivals.
notes
- Anthony Kaye's - Joining Places: Slave Neighborhoods in the Old South
- "The Brook" neighborhood/area - around stage road (Brook Rd) that crossed Ufnam Brook/Upham Brook - descends eastward into Chickahominy
- various plantations, mills, etc
- Thomas Henry Prosser, unmarried 23 year old recent heir of Thomas - the once sheriff, county justice, expelled member of house of burgesses in 1765
- Deep Run coal pits to the west
- baptist meeting house near Hungary Branch
- roads and bridges mostly built and maintained by enslaved black men
- upper section of Henrico in 1800: 451 free tithables (at least 16 free blacks), 1105 black enslaved tithables (aged 16 or older), 177 enslaved children (12-16 year olds also working)
- Brook area: wheat, corn, some tobacco, hay, cattle, hogs
- late on Saturdays, if possible, many enslaved people would travel and visit family, friends, spouses, children; Sundays - continue visits, go to worship, bury dead, talk, play quoits or other card games, fish, etc
- "slave patrols" run by the militia, irregular monthly riding around area
- 1800 - first truly contested election (Republican vs Federalists, Jefferson vs Burr); federal troops near Richmond; war with France in the air
- late spring of 1800, enslaved man Sam Byrd Jr began to gather support for rebellion (owned by Jane Clarke)
- other early leaders of idea and recruitment - George (Smith), Gilbert (Young), Ben Woolfolk - from Caroline Co. but hired to Young, Jack Bowler (aka Jack Ditcher) hired in the area as well, known for size and strength, long hair, scar above one eye
- early on, Jack said to be main leader; he first recruited Gabriel, enslaved blacksmith of Prosser, could read and write, also tall and strong, scars on face, two front teeth knocked out; accosted by Absalom Johnson a renting neighbor, in the fight Gabriel bit part of ear; convicted by Henrico court but allowed to "plead benefit of clergy" - a medieval procedure that provided a means of avoiding capital punishment for the educated, a one-time privilege; no longer had anything to do with education; branded his left hand. Two brothers - Martin, older brother, a preacher, Solomon, also a blacksmith, and something of treasurer for the cause
- Richmond 1784 - 1300 residents, 1800 - 5700
- fire in Shockoe in 1787 burned Byrd's Warehouse and about 40-50 other houses in about 3 hrs
- Armistead, enslaved by William Galt, suggested setting fire to wooden houses at "other end of town", disagreement among planners, later agreed that diversion fire in lower town a good idea
- probably that transformation from loose talk to serious plans began in late April or May
- recruitment, gathering weapons, reshaping tools to become weapons, buying gun powder, buying alcohol to help recruitment
- the records of trials reveal more about recruitment than about plan itself - b/c the people were tried for conspiracy, or "To consult, advise, or conspire to rebel, or make insurrection"
- when George first asked Ben Woolfolk, he asked if he'd like to join a freemason society; Ben responded that all freemason's would go to hell; then George clarified that it was actually a society to fight the white people for their freedom"
- names for the movement or plan in the trial records: "Society to fight the white people for their freedom", "a combination to kill the white people", "the war against the white people", "the intended insurrection", "a fight for our liberty", "a plan for freeing the Negroes from slavery"
- typical term of hire - from New Year's Day to Xmas
- Ned said to lead recruitment among the "warehouse boys" of Richmond
- promise of military rank
- who would be killed? all whites? only men? all males? some exceptions suggested: not the poor people, or methodists and quakers and frenchmen; what about blacks that didn't join?
- basic plan - largest group
- When Thornton recruiting around Littlepage's Bridge, Bristol, enslaved by Charles Carter, and Primus, enslaved by William Overton, threatened to reveal plot if they didn't stop. recruiters threatened them in turn
- Gabriel said hoped to have 1000men
- lists of recruits, or perhaps lists of recruiters
- how much were women involved? not much mentioned, but Gabriel's wife Nanny supportive
- who was the frenchman or two frenchmen who encouraged the plot? maybe made up
- Gilbert mentioned Charles Quersey, probably meant Charles Dequasay
- who was man who fought at seige of Yorktown?
- had at least 6 guns and a pistol by Aug 30th, scythe blades into bayonettes
- Robert Cowley, elderly free black man Keeper of the Capitol and Doorman, lent key to James, enslaved by clerk of va court of appeals; James, Jupiter, and Gabriel slip into view arms stored at capitol sunday aug 10
- Bowler tried to claim leadership, but after vote, Gabriel
- talk of making white flag with "liberty or death" written on it
- Aug 9, John Grammer, Petersburg postmaster, informed Richmond postmaster he'd heard of an insurrection
- Sat Aug 30, b/4 storm, Pharoah, 27rd old, skilled sctheman, enslaved by Phillip Sheppard, and Tom, often charged with running plantation of Elizabeth Sheppard, go to Mosby Sheppard counting room in Richmond and spill the beans
- Mosby spreads word to uncle William Mosby, spreads to folks around Brook and with Gov Monroe
- terrible storm but patrols formed
- later that night after the patrol, female enslaved tells William Mosby of the plan, and that they might try again the next night
- arrested about 20 folks from Brook area by Tue Sept 2
- Gabriel slips onto boat (captain faced with scrutiny; enslaved sailor tipped off authorities in Norfolk) but captured in Norfolk 23 Sept, Bowler in the Brook 9 Oct
- no report of interrogation techniques
- reward prize for capture of Gabriel
- Monroe organizing forces, with approval from Council, parade on Church Hill and capitol grounds
- Court of Oyer and Terminer, no jury, at least 5 justices, court appointed defense, unanimous decision for guilty, aquitted if any dissent, or could find not guilty; also could recommend pardon
- early in sept courts convicted and condemning
- free blacks registering to help protect themselves
- most hanged in Richmond, some at the Brook
- petitions from Richmond to stop or move the hangings
- Monroe asking advice from Jefferson, how much killing is too much?
- one news report mentioned black folks happy when Gabriel captured
- state had to reimburse owners for enslaved people executed
- trial of Martin, a free man, could they use testimony of enslaved people? yes for black but not for white
- 27 men killed in response to plot, one by suicide
- a new law the next year permitting "transportation," deportation to another state or country; traders attempt to sell 8 men in spanish america
- about 10k in security costs, about 11k in reimbursements to owners and costs for transportation; 2600 returned for sales
- 13 men pardoned, saved state around 4500
- state purchased and freed Pharoah and Tom; Richmond citizens establish; life annuity, bonds held by Richard Adams; they stayed in area
- state looking for ways to remove free blacks
- new law limiting manumissions
- 1790's state paid 35,892 to owners
- bills to better arm militias and establish public guard in richmond
- small group of men from Richmond bought and freed Ben (Prosser), who gave a lot of the info
- no record of internment of hanged men
- 24 men hanged from Brook area, about 10% or more of men from Brook
- "It would take a war, one that involved the largest slave uprising in America's history, one where 'these people [were] instrumental to their own emancipation,' to end the peculiar institution and the whispers of rebellion"
- 72 trials (58 in Henrico, 3 in Richmond City, 9 in Caroline, 1 in Louisa and 1 in Dinwiddie); all but one man was enslaved; 26 executed; 25 acquitted; 13 pardoned; 8 transported
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